The Nyaya- Buddhist Debate On Perception

2025-07-14T23:31:22+00:00

This article explores the classical Indian philosophical debate between the Nyāya and Buddhist schools on the nature of perception, specifically the distinction between indeterminate (nirvikalpaka) and determinate (savikalpaka) perception. The central issue concerns whether perception can be genuinely conceptual or whether true perception must be free from conceptual construction. The Buddhist epistemologist Dignāga argues that only non-conceptual, momentary particulars (svalakṣaṇas) are valid objects of perception, while any awareness involving universals, names, or categories belongs to the realm of inference and is thus epistemically suspect. This position challenges the Nyāya realist account, which upholds the validity of conceptual cognition as a stage of perception. Earlier, Nyāya-aligned philosophers such as Kumārila Bhaṭṭa and Vācaspati Miśra attempted to defend conceptual perception, but their explanations were often psychologically descriptive and lacked a rigorous epistemological foundation. This article argues that Gangeśa, the founder of Navya-Nyāya, provides a more philosophically sophisticated response. He affirms the necessity of a non-predicative awareness that precedes conceptual judgment and demonstrates that successful predication presupposes prior cognition of both particulars and universals. By establishing the epistemic continuity between raw perception and conceptual cognition, Gangeśa bridges the gap left by earlier realist thinkers and offers a compelling rebuttal to Buddhist nominalism. His theory also engages with a broader philosophical concern—what modern thinkers like Wilfrid Sellars call the ‘myth of the given’—by grounding conceptual knowledge in valid non-conceptual experience. In doing so, Gangeśa vindicates Nyāya realism in the theory of perception.

Gandhian Non-violence and its Strength: An Experimental Study

2025-08-22T02:32:25+00:00

In the modern age of rapid technological and scientific progress, humanity continues to face persistent challenges of violence, hatred, terrorism, ecological crises, and social unrest. While material development has advanced at an unprecedented pace—revolutionising communication, healthcare, and lifestyles—true peace and happiness remain elusive. Wars, communal conflicts, and rising intolerance across the world demonstrate that material prosperity alone cannot ensure human well-being. Against this backdrop, Gandhian non-violence (ahimsa) emerges as both a moral and practical necessity. This paper examines the relevance and strength of Gandhian non-violence as a transformative force in both individual and collective life. Drawing from Gandhi’s writings, classical Indian philosophical traditions, and modern scholarly interpretations, the study explores non-violence not merely as non-killing or passive resistance, but as an active, courageous practice grounded in truth (satya), love, fearlessness, and self-discipline. Gandhi demonstrated through movements like Satyagraha and the Salt March that non-violence is not weakness but a strategic and moral force capable of challenging oppressive systems. His ideas later inspired global leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela, and the Dalai Lama, proving their cross-cultural and trans-historical relevance. The global recognition of Gandhi’s philosophy is evident in the United Nations’ declaration of October 2nd as the International Day of Non-Violence (since 2007), which reinforces his message of peace, dialogue, and reconciliation. Furthermore, peace education initiatives worldwide—including UNESCO’s programs on global citizenship and non-violence—draw significantly on Gandhian principles to foster tolerance and empathy in younger generations. Gandhian non-violence has also influenced contemporary practices of nonviolent resistance in movements addressing climate change, racial justice, and indigenous rights. The paper argues that Gandhian non-violence offers a realistic and sustainable framework for peace, justice, and social harmony in contemporary society. It emphasises that education in non-violence must be consciously integrated into curricula, public policy, and everyday practice to nurture compassion, tolerance, and cooperation in future generations. Without this commitment, the world risks perpetuating cycles of violence that undermine human dignity and peaceful coexistence. Gandhian non-violence, therefore, remains not only a moral philosophy but also a pragmatic path toward building resilient, humane, and peaceful societies in the 21st century and beyond.

Indian Journal of Ethics, Logic and Philosophy

The Nyaya- Buddhist Debate On Perception

Gandhian Non-violence and its Strength: An Experimental Study